10 Telecollaboration: A 21st Century Teaching Approach?

University of Valencia, Department of English and German, Valencia, Spain
pawel@alumni.uv.es

The recent unprecedented global events, including emergency remote teaching, led to an exponential growth of interest in telecollaboration (TC) among practitioners and researchers, evidenced, among others, by the growing number of publications devoted to this topic (Barbosa & Ferreira-Lopes, 2021). This attention is drawn, in particular, by numerous promises associated with TC projects, such as cultural, linguistic, and social gains (Dooly, 2017; O’Dowd & Lewis, 2016). However, such complex and dynamic exchanges also have several limitations. Consequently, a significant number of TC practitioners might struggle to make sense of the vast body of knowledge available on the topic and properly implement such undertakings. To address this issue, my study adopts a meta-analytical approach (Norris & Ortega, 2006) and provides a synthesis of the recently published research on TC. The reviewed sample comprises 38 journal articles devoted to English as a lingua franca (ELF) TC projects, published between 2016 and 2021. The results of these articles are presented in a coherent and comprehensible way, that permits all interested practitioners of TC to quickly and effectively examine the newest findings of the literature and apply them accordingly, in real-life conditions. This, in turn, facilitates the implementation of good practices of ELF TC projects on the basis of the findings from past ELF TCs, which are collected in this article, and, thus, the organization of future TC exchanges. The findings of this study cover multiple variables of TC projects, in particular, those related to language, culture, and the so-called 21st century skills. Empirical material pertaining to the growth of these skills among ELF TC participants is presented below following an evidence-based approach (Chong & Plonsky, 2021). On the basis of the collected evidence, the present work determines whether TC can constitute an efficient foreign language (FL) learning approach that satisfies the 21st century demands, making a significant contribution to the ongoing debate on the future of FL and L2 language education, which will shape future generations.

Keywords: English as a lingua franca, foreign language learning, meta-analysis, research synthesis, telecollaboration, virtual exchange

1. Telecollaboration: A 21st Century Teaching Approach?

The potential of using telecollaboration (TC) for language learning has been a subject of investigation for nearly 30 years now. Over time, the concept of TC was labelled with multiple terms, such as Online Intercultural Exchange (OIE), eTwinning, or, more recently, Virtual Exchange (VE). Despite these terminological nuances, the nature of all TC projects is comparable, and these terms are used interchangeably (O’Dowd, 2007); moreover, TC definitions comprise the definitions of other, synonymous terms (O’Dowd, 2007, 2021).

Consequently, TC may be considered the core term in the literature and, as a result, its definitions will be used hereinafter. According to Belz, TC “involves the use of Internet communication tools by internationally dispersed students of language in institutionalized settings in order to promote the development of (a) foreign language (FL) linguistic competence and (b) intercultural competence” (Belz, 2003: 68). Guth and Helm define telecollaboration as an “intercultural exchange between people of different cultural/national backgrounds, set up in an institutional context with the aim of developing both language skills and intercultural communicative competence (as defined by Byram, 1997) through structured tasks” (Guth & Helm, 2010: 14).

Accordingly, TC is mostly used to develop linguistic and cultural skills; however, it can also aid the growth of a myriad of other competencies, such as the so-called 21st century skills. According to Ananiadou and Claro (2009), 21st century skills include: cognitive skills (e.g., problem solving and critical thinking), intra- and interpersonal skills (e.g., self-management, communication, and social skills, including collaboration, (inter)cultural sensitivity, and teamwork), as well as technical skills (e.g., research skills).

According to Geisinger (2016) the qualities necessary for the 21st century are: collaborative, communication and digital skills, international perspective, as well as technological knowledge and capabilities. The benefits of TC for developing 21st century skills appear an understudied area. My study attempts to fill this gap by reviewing the recently published literature on TC, in order to determine whether or not TC can be used to boost not only the linguistic and cultural gains of FL learners, but also their 21st century skills.

Especially in recent years, the validation of the affordances of TC, offered by individual studies, proved to be challenging and infrequent in terms of secondary research. This is primarily due to the constantly increasing volume of publications devoted to TC. According to the Scopus database, 1,150 publications on TC were published over a 20-year period (1995 – 2015), whereas 1,179 were published in the recent six-year period (2016 – 2021). These nearly equal numbers reflect the substantial contemporary growth of the field of TC, which has yet to be analyzed through secondary research. Moreover, the majority of the reviews concerning TC published to date include only the publications up to 2015 (Avgousti, 2018; Çiftçi, 2016; Çiftçi & Savaş, 2018; O’Dowd & Lewis, 2016). Just a few others relate to primary studies published before 2019 (Piri & Riahi, 2018; Shadiev & Sintawati, 2020). Notably, the latter are also frequently limited in their scope and dedicate to only one topic, such as intercultural learning (Barbosa & Ferreira-Lopes, 2021).

Additionally, most of the TC publications are case-studies, which, by definition, do not allow for simple generalization of findings. Consequently, there is an urgent need to fill this research gap by conducting a meta-analysis or a research synthesis of those studies, devoted to TC and published after 2015, aiming to generalize and make their results applicable. This goal is further reinforced by the growing interest in TC among worldwide practitioners, such as teachers, university lecturers, as well as researchers. This trend has been particularly noticeable in recent years and, especially, during and after the COVID-19 pandemic which forced the switch to the emergency remote teaching and the adoption of new teaching approaches.

Likewise, recent years’ improvement of TC exchanges significantly differ from how they were handled in the past, due to the ongoing advancement of technology. This is reflected, for instance, in the change of the main modality of TC from asynchronous to synchronous one, as well as the shift from text-based exchanges to video-based projects (O’Dowd, 2011), which affects how linguistic, cultural, and 21st century skills can be developed through TC.

However, evidence of such trends is mostly scattered in individual studies and there are no systematic reviews devoted to 21st century skills. Hence, it is reasonable to combine primary studies through a research synthesis, in order to better understand this topic and make generalizations about it.

Due to two major reasons, this study focuses solely on the findings drawn from the English as a lingua franca TC projects. Firstly, there has been a shift to the TC modality, i.e., the recent growing interest in lingua franca TC exchanges over tandem exchanges (O’Dowd, 2021), due to the increased difficulty in finding suitable partner institutions for tandem exchanges (Dooly, 2008; O’Dowd, 2013, 2015), particularly if the L1 in the project is not a well-known or a commonly studied language. Secondly, because there is a need to comprehend and validate the multiple newly-discovered affordances of ELF TC exchanges, that stem from the most recently published studies, which have not yet been reviewed and/or synthesized in any way. According to the author, there is no secondary research of primary studies published on TC after 2019, moreover ELF TCs have never been a subject of such a review.

The above conclusions validate a secondary research approach to the literature on TC, which answers the needs of both practitioners and researchers by offering an overview of the most recent findings and affordances of ELF TC projects in the field of FL learning. Consequently, the purpose of this study is to review the most recent literature devoted to ELF TC exchanges, to determine whether ELF TC projects can constitute an effective 21st century FL teaching approach in which the development of linguistic, cultural, and 21st century skills can be integrated.

2. Methodology

To fulfil the goal mentioned above, this study follows the rigorous Qualitative Research Synthesis (QRS) scheme, commonly used in the medical domain, which has been applied to the field of language learning by Chong and Plonsky (2021). The methodology is divided into three main stages: identification, screening, and synthesis, whose details are outlined below.

  2.1 Identification

To ensure the broad scope of the review and the high quality of the primary studies, the literature search was conducted in two widely acclaimed multidisciplinary academic databases: Scopus and Web of Science (Barbosa & Ferreira-Lopes, 2021; Rejeb et al., 2020; Skute, 2019). A total of 12 keywords, i.e., various synonyms of TC used in the literature, such as eTandem, OIE, or VE, were aggregated from several articles and reviews devoted to TC (Avgousti, 2018; Çiftçi & Savaş, 2018; Dooly & Vinagre, 2021; O’Dowd & Lewis, 2016; O’Dowd & Lewis, 2016). These keywords, appropriately truncated when necessary, were then entered into each of the databases mentioned above. Additional inclusion criteria were established; for example, the studies had to:

• (1) be published between 2016 and 2021, both inclusive;
• (2) be published in the form of a journal article;
• (3) be of empirical nature;
• (4) be published in English.

Results of each of the searches, including the meta-data, abstracts, titles, and keywords of the articles, were saved as RIS files. Scopus database yield 229 potential studies while Web of Science returned 380 of them. Next, the RIS files were imported into the Mendeley reference manager. There, duplicates were removed, leaving 443 original studies for the screening stage.

2.2 Screening

The screening process followed the PRISMA statement guidelines (Moher et al., 2009), and included a careful examination of the abstracts, titles, and keywords of 443 studies. As a result of this procedure, 319 articles were recognized as irrelevant and removed from the corpus. Consequently, 124 studies were reviewed.

Subsequently, a search-enhancement technique called “snowballing” was performed. It included a review of the references of all the studies, in search of other publications that may potentially be included in the corpus, if they fulfil all of the inclusion methodological criteria. As a result of this procedure, two additional publications were found and were included in the corpus, thus, increasing the total number of studies to 126.

The following step involved the gathering of the full-texts of these 126 publications. Just 117 full-texts were collected and assessed for eligibility with the assumptions of the study.

At this point, one more filtering procedure was done: those articles that were not ELF TC projects were removed. Following this procedure, 79 studies were excluded and 38 remained. Among them, two pairs of studies were written by the same authors and reported on the same ELF TC projects, consequently, to avoid double counting, each of these pairs of articles was merged and recognized as a single report. This resulted in the grand total of 36 studies under review.

  2.3  Synthesis

During this stage, the findings of the 36 publications were categorized, analyzed, and synthesized. The categories were generated inductively using the grounded theory, i.e., through the identification of new themes and their constant comparison to the already established ones which led to the creation of new categories, their merging, or splitting. The results of this synthesis are presented in the following section.

     3. Findings

The findings are reported according to the evidence-based approach suggested by Chong and Plonsky (2021). Due to space constraints, only a limited portion of results will be addressed; particularly, those pertaining to language, culture, and 21st century skills.

  3.1 Language

Many study under examination (n = 27) show that students who took part in ELF TC projects grew linguistically (Grau & Turula, 2019; Scott-Monkhouse et al., 2021; Vahed & Soleimani, 2020). According to several studies, various language skills, such as listening, reading, speaking, and writing can be enhanced through TC (Freiermuth & Huang, 2021; Jung et al., 2019; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017). Students also showed other language improvements, such as increased proficiency in grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary lexicon (Demir & Kayaoglu, 2021; Dooly & Sadler, 2016; Jung et al., 2019). Many of the reports concluded also that TC facilitates FL acquisition (Hagley, 2020; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017; Smith & Keng, 2017).

  3.2 Culture

Up to 26 of the reviewed studies point to cultural gains of students, as a result of their involvement in ELF TC projects (Flowers et al., 2019; Ke, 2016; Porto, 2016, 2018). These advantages are evidenced by the presence of the following notions: departure from stereotypes, formation of close bonds and friendships, as well as increased interest and openness towards other cultures (Alghasab & Alvarez-Ayure, 2021; Freiermuth & Huang, 2021; Vahed & Soleimani, 2020). Correspondingly, a few articles indicate that students’ intercultural sensitivity has risen as a result of participating in an ELF TC exchange (Alcaraz-Mármol, 2020; Gholami Pasand et al., 2021; Hagley, 2020).

  3.3 Authenticity

About half of the publications under review (n = 16) argue that TC is an authentic learning environment, comparable to real life (Chen & Yang, 2016; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017; Waldman et al., 2019). Dendenne (2021) highlights that ELF TCs allow students to face and solve situations that they might experience in real life, such as how to use a FL in certain circumstances.

Similarly, several articles emphasize that the ability to participate in an authentic communication is beneficial for the FL learning process and desirable from the socio-constructivist perspective (Demir & Kayaoglu, 2021; Ke, 2016; Nguyen et al., 2020). Jung et al. (2019) stress that the participants of ELF TCs are more eager to use English in such contexts and, thus, are more likely to continue learning the language. According to a few studies, the ability to collaborate remotely with other learners of English, as in the case of ELF TCs, has a positive impact on students’ motivation towards learning the FL (Freiermuth & Huang, 2021; Jung et al., 2019; Kohn & Hoffstaedter, 2017).

  3.4 Communication Skills

Multiple articles (n = 16) reveal that participation in ELF TCs can improve students’ communication skills (Demir & Kayaoglu, 2021; Dooly & Davitova, 2018; Flowers et al., 2019). This is particularly important while learning and practicing the FL, since students are more likely to improve their FL skills if they receive an extensive opportunity to practice the TL, as in the case of ELF TC (Austin et al., 2017; Chen & Yang, 2016; Kohn & Hoffstaedter, 2017).

However, a few studies point out that missed or failed communication is quite frequent in TC, and this might hinder the overall TC experience and learners’ growth (Bueno-Alastuey & Kleban, 2016; Gajek & Calderon-Quindos, 2018; Turula, 2017). Likewise, several articles highlight that various technical difficulties might negatively impact communication in TC and, thus, limit the growth of communication skills (Austin et al., 2017; Nguyen et al., 2020; Priego & Liaw, 2017a, 2017b).

  3.5 Autonomy

Nearly half of the reviewed articles (n = 15) reports that ELF TCs increase the learner’s autonomy (Dendenne, 2021; Nguyen et al., 2020; Scott-Monkhouse et al., 2021). According to Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017) participation in TC projects enables students to control their learning pace, reducing their reliance on the teacher and, at the same time, to gradually become independent English users. Additionally, a few publications suggest that the very format of TC and the possibility to choose the tools for collaboration can positively influence participants’ growth of autonomy (Chen & Yang, 2016; Flowers et al., 2019; Vurdien & Puranen, 2016). However, Vurdien and Puranen (2016) caution that some students might not necessarily know how to effectively control their learning process, that is why the suggestion to instruct learners on this matter, prior to the project.

  3.6 Teamwork

A significant number of studies (n = 13) suggest that participation in ELF TCs can boost students’ teamwork skills (Grau & Turula, 2019; O’Dowd et al., 2020; Smith & Keng, 2017). TC participants often noticed a teamwork skill development, ranking it among the most important benefits of TC projects (Scott-Monkhouse et al., 2021; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017). Moreover, a few articles highlighted that teamwork facilitates the advance of numerous other skills and qualities, such as compromising, negotiating, and open-mindedness (Scott-Monkhouse et al., 2021; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017; Vurdien & Puranen, 2016). Nevertheless, Gajek and Calderon-Quindos (2018) caution that learners might not be able to develop their teamwork skills extensively if the workload is not equally distributed among all project group members.

  3.7 Innovativity

Several publications under review (n = 11) claim that ELF TC projects are innovative. Pouromid (2019) as well as Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017) argue that, thanks to their open and modern character, TC exchanges fit the 21st century FL classrooms. Flowers et al. (2019) add that, compared to traditional classroom settings, ELF TCs provide a more natural and comfortable setting for using the target language (TL). Likewise, Nguyen et al. (2020) as well as Sevilla-Pavón and Nicolaou (2017) provide evidence for the growth of learners’ innovative skills as a result of participating in ELF TC exchanges.

Demir and Kayaoglu (2021) claim that the current English teaching methods and settings are no longer effective and stimulating for learners, indicating that ELF TCs might be a potential alternative. Likewise, Austin et al. (2017) suggest that communication drills performed in traditional English classes are not representative of real-world situations and do not adequately prepare FL students for actual communication. Consequently, several studies, such as those by Austin et al. (2017), Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017), and Waldman et al. (2019), hypothesize that ELF TC projects may represent more efficient opportunities for practicing FLs that can overcome the current limitations of FL classrooms.

  3.8 Multimodality

Eight of the reviewed publications address one of the core aspects of TC – multimodality. They argue that multimodal settings facilitate communication among students and, thus, contribute to their linguistic and cultural growth (Austin et al., 2017; Kohn & Hoffstaedter, 2017). According to Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017) due to their enhanced communication capabilities, which are limited in unimodal settings, such settings can be particularly suitable for low proficiency learners.

Further, Pouromid (2019) highlights that in multimodal settings lexical gaps can be much more easily overcome than in traditional settings, due to simplified ways of communicating with other learners. Similarly, Dooly and Davitova (2018) argue that multimodality can help TC participants to cope with potential communication problems. According to a few studies, such as Austin et al. (2017), Ke (2016), or Pouromid (2019), multimodal settings allow students to use a number of linguistic and non-linguistic communication strategies, which not only facilitate communication flow and mutual understanding among students, but also reduce the overall cognitive load of the conversation.

Ke (2016) highlights that multimodal ELF TC environments are less stressful for students than traditional FL classrooms, because they place less emphasis on language accuracy. According to Austin et al. (2017), multimodality enhances students’ dialogues and improves teamwork. Lastly, Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017) argue that multimodality favors translanguaging and promotes students’ abandonment of their native speaker identity. Further, Kohn and Hoffstaedter (2017) conclude that multimodality, in general, should be encouraged in FL teaching, and that this could be achieved through the implementation of multimodal ELF TCs.

  3.9 Translingual Practices

According to eight of the reviewed publications, and contrary to the initial belief that lingua franca exchanges feature communication only in the TL, ELF TCs frequently include instances of L1 and L3 use by their participants. Austin et al. (2017) claims that L1 is often used in opening and closing statements in ELF TC exchanges. Austin et al. (2017) suggest that this happens primarily to form bonds with TC partners, but also to mark ones’ cultural and linguistic identity and share it with the others. Pouromid (2019) states that the use of non-verbal and non-linguistic communication increases when students’ L1s are different.

Kulavuz-Onal and Vásquez (2018) note also that the use of L1 in TCs provides a cultural translation or an explanation, although, as the authors suggest, it should be rather limited due to the potential lack of comprehension among the exchange partners. Similarly to L1, Kulavuz-Onal and Vásquez (2018) report that L3 is frequently used to address partner students during greetings and goodbyes. Ke (2016) highlights that L3 helps to create relationships among TC participants, and has a positive impact on the project dynamics. Additional reasons for using L3, as enumerated by Kulavuz-Onal and Vásquez (2018), include: exchanging compliments, establishing solidarity among TC participants, as well as appreciating the multilingual and multinational nature of the TC project.

Pouromid (2019) points out that translingual practices tend to occur when participants have difficulties in conveying the message in the TL, and attempt to fix it by translanguaging. Further, the author highlights that students might opt for translanguaging if they feel that their utterances were not fully understood or correct. Interestingly enough, Ke (2016) observed that in ELF TCs environment the use of the TL decreased, while the frequency of translingual practices increased over time. Lastly, Kulavuz-Onal and Vásquez (2018) found that translingual practices contribute positively towards the relations among TC participants.

  3.10 Other Skills

In addition to the aforementioned advantages and limitations, several journal articles reported that involvement in ELF TC projects improves the following skills, including the 21st century ones:

• Creativity (Kohn & Hoffstaedter, 2017; Nguyen et al., 2020; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017);
• Critical thinking (Chen & Yang, 2016; Nguyen et al., 2020; Porto, 2018);
• ICT skills (Alcaraz-Mármol, 2020; Dooly & Davitova, 2018; Waldman et al., 2019);
• Problem-solving skills (Gajek & Calderon-Quindos, 2018; Nguyen et al., 2020);
• Research skills (Chen & Yang, 2016; Sevilla-Pavón & Nicolaou, 2017; Smith & Keng, 2017).

     4. Discussion and Conclusions

The foregoing results, inferred from as many as 34 studies out of the 36 journal articles reviewed, allow to conclude with a high degree of certainty that ELF TC projects enable students who participate in such exchanges to develop their linguistic, cultural, and the so-called 21st century skills. This is due to the abundance of compelling data from several studies, that were published over the years and came to the same conclusions about the development of the aforementioned types of skills. Since the findings of the studies in this corpus cover multiple learning environments, that differ in terms of participants’ age, nationality, L1, and educational stage, they can be generalized to broader populations.

It can be concluded that ELF TC approach to FL learning creates an authentic, innovative, and multimodal learning environment, which appeals to students, who appreciate and enjoy learning in it. Certainly, such setting may be described as one that addresses the needs of 21st century students, as well as the demands of the contemporary and likely also the future world. This is demonstrated by the fact that ELF TCs allow their participants to learn how to work individually and as a team in multinational and multilingual settings, both of which are important 21st century workplace competences. In addition, learning how to effectively interact in a FL in such environments is facilitated in ELF TC projects, and is rarely feasible in traditional FL classes. Correspondingly, ELF TCs include a variety of translingual practices, whose occurrence contributes not only to the linguistic, but also to the cultural growth of TC participants. Undoubtedly, such beneficial linguistic events are unlikely to occur in monolithic FL classrooms, but are a frequent phenomenon during TC exchanges. Likewise, ELF TCs improve participants’ creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, all of which, yet again, are highly valuable on the 21st century job market and reflect the qualities that are expected from 21st century citizens and employees. Likewise, ELF TCs support the development of research and ICT skills, which are essential in contemporary world.

The above findings allow to unanimously answer the question raised in the title of this article and conclude that ELF TCs exchanges can, in fact, be considered a valid and effective 21st century teaching approach, which helps to develop linguistic, cultural, and 21st century skills.

References

Alcaraz-Mármol, G. (2020). Developing intercultural communication in the EFL primary education classroom: Internationalization through virtual team collaboration with eTwinning. Tejuelo, 32, 147-170. https://doi.org/10.17398/1988-8430.32.147

Alghasab, M., & Alvarez-Ayure, C. P. (2021). Towards the promotion of intercultural competences: Telecollaborative conversations between Kuwaiti and Colombian English as a foreign language university students. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1-29. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1934483

Ananiadou, K., & Claro, M. (2009). 21st century skills and competences for new millennium learners in OECD countries. OECD Education Working Papers, 41. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1787/218525261154

Austin, N., Hampel, R., & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2017). Video conferencing and multimodal expression of voice: Children’s conversations using Skype for second language development in a telecollaborative setting. System, 64, 87-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2016.12.003

Avgousti, M. I. (2018). Intercultural communicative competence and online exchanges: A systematic review. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 31(8), 819-853. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1455713

Barbosa, M. W., & Ferreira-Lopes, L. (2021). Emerging trends in telecollaboration and virtual exchange: A bibliometric study. Educational Review, 1-29. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2021.1907314

Belz, J. A. (2003). Linguistic perspectives on the development of intercultural competence in telecollaboration. Language Learning & Technology, 7(2), 68-99.

Bueno-Alastuey, M. C., & Kleban, M. (2016). Matching linguistic and pedagogical objectives in a telecollaboration project: A case study. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29(1), 148-166. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2014.904360

Chen, J. J., & Yang, S. C. (2016). Promoting cross-cultural understanding and language use in research-oriented Internet-mediated intercultural exchange. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29(2), 262-288.

Chong, S. W., & Plonsky, L. (2021). A primer on qualitative research synthesis in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 55(3), 1024-1034.

Çiftçi, E. Y. (2016). A review of research on intercultural learning through computer-based digital technologies. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(2), 313-327.

Çiftçi, E. Y., & Savaş, P. (2018). The role of telecollaboration in language and intercultural learning: A synthesis of studies published between 2010 and 2015. ReCALL, 30(3), 278-298.

Demir, N., & Kayaoglu, M. N. (2021). Multi-dimensional foreign language education: The case of an eTwinning project in Turkey. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(9), 2201-2238. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2020.1871027

Dendenne, B. (2021). Telecollaborative writing within an Algerian EFL context: Insights from the Ibunka2019 project. Language Related Research, 12(3), 151-186.

Dooly, M. (2008). Telecollaborative language learning: A guidebook to moderating intercultural collaboration online. Peter Lang.

Dooly, M. (2017). Telecollaboration. In C. A. Chapelle & S. Sauro (Eds.), The Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning (pp. 169-183). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118914069.ch12

Dooly, M., & Davitova, N. (2018). ‘What Can We Do to Talk More?’: Analysing language learners’ online interaction. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 33(Special Issue), 215-237. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.16986/HUJE.2018038804

Dooly, M., & Sadler, R. (2016). Becoming little scientists: Technologically-enhanced project-based language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 20(1), 54-78.

Dooly, M., & Vinagre, M. (2021). Research into practice: Virtual exchange in language teaching and learning. Language Teaching, 55(3), 392-406. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444821000069

Flowers, S., Kelsen, B., & Cvitkovic, B. (2019). Learner autonomy versus guided reflection: How different methodologies affect intercultural development in online intercultural exchange. ReCALL, 31(3), 221-237. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344019000016

Freiermuth, M. R., & Huang, H. C. (2021). Zooming across cultures: Can a telecollaborative video exchange between language learning partners further the development of intercultural competences? Foreign Language Annals, 54(1), 185-206. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12504

Gajek, E., & Calderon-Quindos, M. T. (2018). Developing a reflective practitioner through telecollaboration in language teacher preservice education: A bottom-up perspective. E-mentor, 5(77), 44-52. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15219/em77.1388

Geisinger, K. F. (2016). 21st century skills: What are they and how do we assess them? Applied Measurement in Education, 29(4), 245-249. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/08957347.2016.1209207

Gholami Pasand, P., Amerian, M., Dowlatabadi, H., & Mohammadi, A. M. (2021). Developing EFL learners’ intercultural sensitivity through computer-mediated peer interaction. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 50(6), 571-587. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2021.1943496

Grau, M. K., & Turula, A. (2019). Experiential learning of telecollaborative competences in pre-service teacher education. Language Learning & Technology, 23(3), 98-115.

Guth, S., & Helm, F. (2010). Telecollaboration 2.0: Language, literacies and intercultural learning in the 21st century (Vol. 1). Peter Lang.

Hagley, E. (2020). Effects of virtual exchange in the EFL classroom on students’ cultural and intercultural sensitivity. Computer-Assisted Language Learning Electronic Journal, 21(3), 74-87.

Jung, Y., Kim, Y., Lee, H., Cathey, R., Carver, J., & Skalicky, S. (2019). Learner perception of multimodal synchronous computer-mediated communication in foreign language classrooms. Language Teaching Research, 23(3), 287-309. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168817731910

Ke, I. C. (2016). Deficient non-native speakers or translanguagers? Identity struggles in a multilingual multimodal ELF online intercultural exchange. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, 26(2), 280-300. https://doi.org/10.1075/japc.26.2.06ke

Kohn, K., & Hoffstaedter, P. (2017). Learner agency and non-native speaker identity in pedagogical lingua franca conversations: Insights from intercultural telecollaboration in foreign language education. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(5), 351-367. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2017.1304966

Kulavuz-Onal, D., & Vásquez, C. (2018). “Thanks, shokran, gracias”: Translingual practices in a Facebook group. Language Learning & Technology, 22(1), 240-255.

Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & PRISMA Group (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), 264-269.

Nguyen, N. D., Liwan, V. B., & Mai, T. T. P. (2020). Facilitating cultural exchange and fostering 21st century skills using Skype in the classroom. Computer-Assisted Language Learning Electronic Journal, 21(3), 88-104.

Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2006). The value and practice of research synthesis for language learning and teaching. In J. M. Norris & L. Ortega (Eds.), Synthesizing research on language learning and teaching (Vol. 13, pp. 3-50). John Benjamins Publishing Company.

O’Dowd, R. (2007). Online intercultural exchange: An introduction for foreign language teachers (Vol. 15). Multilingual Matters.

O’Dowd, R. (2013). Telecollaborative networks in university higher education: Overcoming barriers to integration. The Internet and Higher Education, 18, 47-53.

O’Dowd, R. (2015). Supporting in-service language educators in learning to telecollaborate. Language Learning & Technology, 19(1), 63-82.

O’Dowd, R. (2021). What do students learn in virtual exchange? A qualitative content analysis of learning outcomes across multiple exchanges. International Journal of Educational Research, 109, 101804.

O’Dowd, R., & Lewis, T. (2016). Online intercultural exchange: Policy, pedagogy, practice. Routledge.

O’Dowd, R., Sauro, S., & Spector-Cohen, E. (2020). The role of pedagogical mentoring in virtual exchange. TESOL Quarterly, 54(1), 146-172. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.543

O’Dowd, R. (2011). Intercultural communicative competence through telecollaboration. In J. Jackson (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of language and intercultural communication (pp. 340-356). Routledge.

O’Dowd, R. (2021). Virtual exchange: Moving forward into the next decade. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 34(3), 209-224. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1902201

O’Dowd, R., & Lewis, T. (2016). Online intercultural exchange and foreign language learning: A systematic review. In T. Lewis & R. O’Dowd (Eds.), Online intercultural exchange: Policy, pedagogy, practice (1 ed., pp. 21-66). Routledge. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315678931

Piri, S., & Riahi, S. (2018). Cross-cultural perspectives on technology-enhanced language learning: A review of research. In D. Tafazoli, E. M. Gomez Parra, & C. A. Huertas-Abril (Eds.), Cross-cultural perspectives on technology-enhanced language learning (pp. 1-15). IGI Global. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-5463-9.ch001

Porto, M. (2016). Ecological and intercultural citizenship in the primary English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom: An online project in Argentina. 46(4), 395-415. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2015.1064094

Porto, M. (2018). ‘Yo antes no reciclaba y esto me cambio por completo la consiencia’: Intercultural citizenship education in the English classroom. Education 3-13, 46(3), 317-334. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2016.1259247

Pouromid, S. (2019). Towards multimodal interactions in the multilingual EFL classroom: Lessons from a COIL experience. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(3), 627-637. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v8i3.15262

Priego, S., & Liaw, M. L. (2017a). Listening to the multiple voices in an intercultural telecollaborative multilingual digital storytelling project: A Bakhtinian perspective. ALSIC, 20(2). https://doi.org/10.4000/alsic.3168

Priego, S., & Liaw, M. L. (2017b). Understanding different levels of group functionality: Activity systems analysis of an intercultural telecollaborative multilingual digital storytelling project. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(5), 368-389. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2017.1306567

Rejeb, A., Simske, S., Rejeb, K., Treiblmaier, H., & Zailani, S. (2020). Internet of Things research in supply chain management and logistics: A bibliometric analysis. Internet of Things, 12, 100318. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iot.2020.100318

Scott-Monkhouse, A. R., Tal, M., & Yelenevskaya, M. (2021). International teleconferences in EGAP courses: Preparing students for prospective professional situations. Language Learning in Higher Education, 11(1), 15-32. https://doi.org/10.1515/cercles-2021-2003

Sevilla-Pavón, A., & Nicolaou, A. (2017). Online intercultural exchanges through digital storytelling. International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 7(4), 44-58. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJCALLT.2017100104

Shadiev, R., & Sintawati, W. (2020). A review of research on intercultural learning supported by technology. Educational Research Review, 31, 100338. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100338

Skute, I. (2019). Opening the black box of academic entrepreneurship: A bibliometric analysis. Scientometrics, 120, 237-265. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-019-03116-w

Smith, S., & Keng, N. (2017). A business writing OIL (Online International Learning): A Finland/UK case study. International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 7(4), 33-43. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJCALLT.2017100103

Turula, A. (2017). Teaching presence in telecollaboration. Keeping an open mind. System, 64, 21-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2016.12.001

Vahed, F. Z., & Soleimani, H. (2020). Meta-communication devices used in a multilingual EFL telecollaboration for secondary school students. Applied Linguistics Research Journal, 4(3), 24-36. https://doi.org/10.14744/alrj.2019.30602

Vurdien, R., & Puranen, P. (2016). A Spanish-Finnish telecollaboration to develop intercultural competence and learner autonomy. International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 6(3), 36-53. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4018/IJCALLT.2016070103

Waldman, T., Harel, E., & Schwab, G. (2019). Extended telecollaboration practice in teacher education towards pluricultural and plurilingual proficiency. European Journal of Language Policy, 11(2), 167-185. https://doi.org/10.3828/ejlp.2019.11