8 Code-switching usage in English language class at tertiary institutions in Kano

National Institute for Hospitality and Tourism, Bagauda, Kano, Nigeria.
sagirabdullahi2012@gmail.com

This paper explores the practice of code-switching in English language classes at tertiary institutions in Kano. The research focuses on the reasons for teachers’ code-switching, functions, and linguistic features in the types of code-switching used in English classes. Ethnography was adopted as the methodology and Discourse Analysis approach (D.A) as its theoretical framework. Observation and audio recording were employed during the data collection. Data were analyzed based on 10 functions of code-switching by Hoffmann (1991) and Poplack (1980) classification types of code-switching model. The findings reveal that teachers’ code-switching serves two different functions in English language classes: instructional functions and social functions. Instructional functions include confirmation and evaluation, clarification, explanation, and word equivalence in terms of translation in order to facilitate comprehension. While the social functions include emotion and humor for establishing social rapport with students and dealing with classroom discipline. All the code-switched utterances employed by teachers and students were either inter-sentential, intra-sentential, or tag-switching at word, clause, phrase, and sentential levels.

Keywords: Code-switching, English Language Classes, Inter-sentential, Intra-sentential and Tag switching

1. Introduction

In the Nigerian educational system, the English language is the medium of instruction in all educational institutions and also in industrial and business training centers. It is an important subject in the school curriculum at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of education in Nigeria.  The National Policy of Education (NPE), formulated in 1977 and revised in 1981, 1998 and 2004 assigns to English the role of serving as the language of instruction from the fourth year of a six-year primary course to the tertiary level.  According to Oyetunde (1984), English language is a passport to educational advancement and as a subject, especially at the higher level of education in Nigeria, it could be viewed from two academic contexts. First, it functions as a subject matter for obtaining a certificate or degree after passing through the necessary higher education program and secondly, occupies an important position in the preparation of school curriculum and other educational activities that make it indispensable in the whole system.  However, in a multilingual or bilingual classroom setting, language is central to the construction of meaning for students from different linguistic backgrounds.  When two or more languages co-exist, the possibility to code-switch among interlocutors with similar or shared linguistic background often takes place (Jacobson, 2004).  Cook (2001) refers to code-switching in the classroom as a natural response in a bilingual situation and considers the ability to switch from one language to another as highly desirable among learners.  Moreover, in eliciting teachers’ reflections on their classroom teachings, Ali and Agbedo (2013) notice that the most notable strategy that teachers used was code-switching to achieve a number of communicative and metalinguistic ends. According to Richards and Rogers (2001), the use of learners’ native languages is a powerful means for learners to explore their ideas.  They argue further that without code-switching, some students’ alternate conceptions would remain unexposed.  The recognition to switch codes goes beyond switching between languages; it also recognizes the value of using the vernacular, which allows students to draw on useful sense-making resources (Amin, 2009).  Researchers considered using code-switching in the classroom as a “legitimate strategy” (Cook, 2001: 105) and no matter how disruptive it might be during a conversation, it still provides an opportunity for language development (Skiba et al, 1997). Despite English as the medium of instruction in Nigerian tertiary institutions, yet, code-switching dominates classroom interaction. The practice of Code-switching has become a prevalent phenomenon in the English classroom context in which teachers and students are fully engaged. A clear understanding of what necessitates teachers’ code-switching as well as students was not ascertained at tertiary institutions in Kano. Therefore, the focus of this paper is to critically explore the reason that causes its occurrence in the classroom situation and in some other social interactions.

2. Methodology

Ethnography was adopted as the methodology of this study and the Discourse Analysis approach (D.A) as its theoretical framework. For the data collection, two methods were employed: Classroom observations and audio recordings. The use of observations is to ascertain what is happening in the classroom and to establish a connection between reality and theoretical assumptions.  Alongside the observations, audio recordings were also used to uncover the exact nature of the verbal behavior of the teachers. The data collected were mostly teachers’ utterances during English language lecture sessions in some selected tertiary institutions in Kano i.e Federal College of Education, Aminu Kano School of Islamic Legal Studies and Sa’adatu Rimi College of Education. The researcher used a digital recorder to record teachers’ lectures while in sessions. Recorded speeches from the teachers’ lectures for about 45 to 60 minutes were transcribed and speeches containing code-switching were also identified, extracted, and annotated for further analysis.

3. Data presentation and analysis

The data were analyzed based on 10 functions[1] of code-switching of Hoffman (1991) and Poplack (1980) classification types of code-switching (inter-sentential, intra-sentential, and tag switching). Inter-sentential switching involves a switch at a clausal or sentential boundary where the clause or sentence might have been in L1 before changing to L2. While intra-sentential switching occurs when words or phrases from another language are inserted into a sentence of the first language and tag-switching is the insertion of words that can be put anywhere within the boundary of a sentence or speech without violating the grammatical rules of that sentence.  The data were first identified, selected, edited, and transcribed using the mode from Miles and Huberman (1994) through data reduction, data description, and classification. Teachers’ code-switching was for the following purposes: confirmation and evaluation, clarification, explanation, emotion, humor, discipline, and equivalence.

3.1       Confirmation and Evaluation

As observed in English classes, teachers employed code-switching involving Hausa fillers and tags for statement confirmation and to evaluate students’ performance. This is depicted in the following excerpts from the recorded teachers’ utterances in the classes:

Excerpt 1

Now, scopes of communication (spelling the word) S C O P E. Ko?

(Now, scopes of communication (spelling the word) S C O P E.  Rright?)

Excerpt 2

What is the meaning of verbal, using your mouth….ko?  Very good

(What is the meaning of verbal, using your mouth….right?  Very good)

Excerpt 3

I said body movement ko?

(I said body movement right?)

Excerpt 4

For example, teacher and student ko?  …… Doctor and Patient ko?

(For example, teacher and student, right?  …… Doctor and Patient,  right?) 

Excerpt 5

This is all about communication.  We define various ways of communication.

We made mention types of communication. We made mention of channels

of communication ko?

(This is all about communication.  We defined various ways of communication.

We made mention types of communication. We made mention of channels of  Communication, right?)

Excerpt 6

Drama is a powerful model of learning.  Ko?

(Drama is a powerful model of learning. Right?).

Excerpt 7

Robert John defines communication as an exchange between people of knowledge, information, ideas, opinions and feelings, toh! This is how he defines communication you get it. Toh!

(Robert John defines communication as an exchange between people of knowledge, information, ideas, opinions and feelings, Okey! This is how he defines communication you get it. Okey! ).

Excerpt 8

Omodiogbe, may be he is a Yoruba man. Is there any Yoruba here?  Omodiogbe, toh! 2002.

(Omodiogbe, may be he is a Yoruba man. Is there any Yoruba here?  Omodiogbe, okey! 2002).

Excerpt 9

……….(noise) that one will not but it could be , but this time around, toh!

(……….(noise) that one will not but it could be , but this time around, okey!).

It was evident from the above excerpts that “fillers” have featured at the end of the code-switching utterances in these sentences. The employment of Hausa fillers, “ko” (right) which appears in excerpts 1, 2,3,4,5, and 6 in the form of tag switching done by teachers was to make confirmation. Teachers evaluate their students on the previous lessons to confirm whether they understand the discussed subject or not. Also, according to excerpts 7, 8, and 9 teachers checked the concept of communication, scopes of communication, and various types of communication for confirmation purposes.  The employment of fillers like “toh!” (okey) and  “ko” (right) in the teacher’s utterances were for a rhetorical question that does not require constructive or analytical answers. The use of Hausa fillers was similar to what Poplack (1980) calls tag-switching which is basically defined as the switching of a tag phrase or word from one language to another. In the above excerpts, teachers’ code-switching served confirmation and evaluation functions in order to test the students understanding of the discussed topic.  The utterance of ‘toh!’ and ‘ko’ by the teachers in English classes was basically habitual and it happens as a result of mother tongue influence in order to confirm statements.

3.2 Clarification

Teachers used code-switching in English classes to give more additional information, elaboration, and expansion on some vague concepts and ambiguous terms. The alternations by teachers serve clarification functions on subject matters in order to keep a smooth flow of teacher-student interactions. In the following excerpts, the teacher makes adequate explanations in order to clarify the conceptual terms by inserting Hausa clauses, phrases, and sentences.

Excerpt 10

The speech of the sound, idan misalin yanzu kai magana ko kai kalma ai yanayin fitowar kalmar shi ne what we referred as phoneme.

(The speech of the sound, for example, if you speak or uttered a word, the abstraction of the physical speech sound of that word is what we referred as phoneme).

Excerpt 11

Ko wane yaareé na duniya da za ka je ka koya, indai za ka yi speech work, dole  organs of speech za a koya maka. Amma zai zama based on yaren da kaje koyo.  I don’t know whether ko kun fahimci abinda nake nufi.

(In learning any natural language, in as much as you will learn speech work, you must be taught organs of speech. However, it will be based on the governing rules of that language. I don’t know whether you understand what I mean).

Excerpt 12      

Teacher:    Look at for example, here I came to this class, I said  “hey guys, hi, what is the name,  what’s up”. Za ka ji wasu na cewa wannan ta cika ƙaaƙale. So it is because of the phoneme. Ka gane ko?

Teacher: Look at for example, here I came to this class, I said “hey guys, hi, what is the name,  what’s up”. You will hear others talking, this woman is so acting up.  So it is because of the phoneme. Do you understand?

Student:    Ma, Kina nufin is that how you are pronouncing these words or talk?

Student:    Ma, do you mean is that how you are pronouncing these words or talk?.

In all the excerpts quoted above, it buttresses that the teacher was trying to draw comparative examples to analyze the conceptual areas in a grammar lesson. In the same vein, the teacher explains how speech sounds are perceived as well as the pronunciation processes of words in formal language classes. She also expresses the language acquisition processes and the sound utterances phonologically. The teacher extensively clarified the habit of language speakers generally and how it differs from one language to another.  In excerpts 10, 11, and 12, the teacher used both single words, clauses, and complete sentences to add more and clarify her statements for example: the word “yaareé” (language), clause “Ko wane yaareé na duniya da za ka je ka koya” (any natural language that you will learn), phrase “ har a ka sami” (in as much you get), sentence  “wannan ta cika ƙaaƙale” (this woman is so acting up). The language alternation at the word, clausal and phrasal level was synonymous with what Poplack (1980) calls intra-sentential code-switching. It is the situation where the switching takes place within the clause or sentence and is considered to be the most complex form of switching. Therefore, the teacher uses her linguistic skills and mastery of both the two languages i.e English and Hausa to express herself well in the form of code-switching which serves a clarification function.

3.3       Explanation

Teacher’s code-switching functions as a means for providing a comprehensive and detailed explanation of some abstract terms and concepts on the subject matter in English language classes. The following excerpts show how the teacher was presenting her topic to the students in the class as follows:

Excerpt 13

Why they said the aims and goals of the criticism because ai shi theory shi ya kawo  Criticism. Shi ya buɗe kofa har aka sami criticism, this is what I want you to understand.

(Why they said the aims and goals of the criticism, because it is the theory that brought criticism.  It is that paves the way for criticism, this what  I want you to understand).

Excerpt 14

Teacher: You are asking what is intrinsic and extrinsic, which proper school of thought is it to be applied for, Ko ba haka ka ke nufi ba?

Teacher: You are asking what is intrinsic and extrinsic and which proper School of thought is it to be applied for, is it not what you mean? ).

Student:       Yes, haka nake nufi.

         (Yes, that what I mean).

Teacher:    In ka ɗauki Marxists suna yin intrinsic and extrinsic, they use both of them.  Amma in kaje structuralism, they don’t go for the two of  the subjects.  In kaje formalism they only take one ba sa using all but it  is only marxists and sometime  ina ga Formalism saboda sometime because they are language biased.  Since they are language biased ba sa haɗa wa gaba ɗaya, wanda suka ɗauka shi suke back-up.  

(Marxists used both intrinsic and extrinsic. Structuralism don’t go for the two. The same thing with formalists, they only take one not all. But it is only Marxists and I think sometimes formalists even though they are language biased.  Since they are language biased, they don’t merge the two and only back-up the one chosen).

Student:  What is their differences ɗin su gaba ɗaya?

      What are their differences in all?

Teacher: Toh! Ba ga shi differences na gaya maka ba. One allows criticism within the text and the other does not allow criticism in and outside the text, is it not the difference?  Toh! Difference ɗin me kuma ka ke so in gaya maka.

Teacher:  Ok! These are the differences, I have already told you about. One allows for criticism within the text and the other does not allow in and outside the text, is it not the difference?  Ok! What kind of difference do you want me to tell you again?

As observed in excerpts 13 and 14 the above, revealed that teachers use intra-sentential code-switching to explain abstract terms and respond to the students’ questions in the literature class. The function of the teacher’s code-switching in this respect was basically to ease comprehension in the explanation of some literary terms and concepts in a simpler way.  The teacher was trying to compare all schools of thoughts together and see how each relates to one another. The concept of literary criticism was fully elaborated based on Marxism, Formalism, and Structuralism viewpoints.  As usual, explanation occurs when the teacher sees the need to repeat and elaborate on what was previously said in another language in order to help students understand the subject of discussion. It tallies with Canagarajah’s (1995) research which opines that a teacher’s code-switched function is for the explanation which occurs at different places during the lessons.  It normally happens when introducing a new topic, checking an exercise, and when posing argumentative exposition over a strange subject matter.  This is supported by Cook (2001) and Lin (2003) that, teachers’ code-switching is an important tool for explanations whereas students find the classroom more natural and easy when code-switching was involved. It gives room for a wider explanation of some technical terms and the introduction of new concepts by teachers. According to Ahmad and Jusoff (2009), the function of teachers’ code-switching in the class gave teachers an opportunity to communicate well and to explain new vocabulary, grammar, and new concepts.

3.4       Emotional

School is said to be a social environment where people from different social backgrounds converge, interact and socialize themselves for common purposes.  It is an environment that comprises teachers and students, especially in a classroom situation where communication takes place for so many reasons. As observed, teachers’ code-switching in English class serves some purposes which are for interpersonal communication, making complaints, and ultimately evoking emotion as obtained in the following excerpts:

Excerpt 15

Teacher:           Ah! Hajiya from where?

            (Ah! Hajiya from where?).

Student:           Wallahi Sir, gaisuwar mutuwa naje, daga qauye nake.

 (Certainly, Sir, I went for condolence visit, I am from village).

The above excerpt revealed the use of intra-sentential and inter-sentential code-switching by both the teacher and student to sympathize with the student for a particular situation. It was an instance where a student came very late while lectures were about to rounded up and the teacher interrogated her lateness. She responds by employing her mother tongue to lodge her excuses.  The emotional function of teachers’ code-switching serves as an appeal to show concern and express feelings over issues that affect students and their personal and private issues.

3.5       Humor

Teachers were observed to establish a connection with their students through social interaction in their classrooms in order to build rapport. Examples of their socializing activities were joking, using warm-up questions, telling students about their own personal issues, and encouraging or praising students. One way of maintaining students’ attention and interest in the teacher-guided classroom was the use of humor.  This was specifically in cases where more than two-thirds of the speaking is done by the teacher while interacting with his students.  The excerpt below provides a good illustration of teacher’s code-switching when cracking jokes with students.

Excerpt 16

I don’t take attendance, it is already time, leave! Kaga matsoraci.

 (I don’t take attendance, it is already time, leave! See a coward.).

Excerpt 17

This is what a lot of Kano people do. They use to kuuri (boasting).

 (This is what a lot of Kano people do. They use to boast.).

In excerpt 16, the teacher cracks jokes with his student. It is habitual for the students in institutions where they have adequate freedom to move in and around the lecture venue. Sometimes, students opted out of the class without even taking permission from the teacher while lectures were in progress. It was the students’ prerogative to either stay till the end of the lectures or else quit the venue depending on the circumstances. In some other instances, teachers decided to take attendance and awarded marks to students and sometimes serve as part of their Continue Assessment.  At this juncture, the teacher notices this kind of behavior from one student in his move to quit the class, and at the same time that student fears that the attendant could be taken. For the teacher to deprive the student from going out, he boldly shouted at the student that he was not taking attendance. The student was startled and the whole class burst into laughter, then the teacher crack a joke by saying that “it is already time, leave!” the student still felt a little ashamed and the class laughs again.  The teacher also responded in Hausa by saying “Ka ga matsoraci” (See a coward). In the second episode of excerpt 17, the teacher happens to be from a neighboring town (Zaria) and wants to crack jokes for his Kano students. In normal circumstances, there are always satirical jokes between the Kano people and Zaria where they shared dialectical differences and joke over them. Here, this teacher alternate in Hausa single word to pool Kano people with the word “Kuuri” which signifies  “boasting”  as part of their habit during the conversation.  Therefore, Teachers’ using code-switching as a joke appeared to work well and had a positive effect on the students.  This effect could be the key factor to building up a good relationship between teachers and their students in the formalized context of the classroom.  However, students found it more humorous not sarcastic, and was done by the teacher in order to create a funny moment for his students in order to laugh.  The entire code-switching exhibited in the above excerpts are intra-sentential in nature which functions for humorous purposes. Therefore, humor can be said to be culture-bound, so it is much safer to joke about it in the mother tongue. As according to Baker (2006), he considers humor a social function of teachers’ code-switching for marking changes in attitudes or relationships with students.

3.6   Discipline

In Language classes, teachers accordingly used English as a medium of instruction throughout their lecture sessions as observed. The mother tongue alternation in these classes came into effect as a method of managing and controlling students’ behavior for discipline purposes. Teachers’ code-switching in this respect functions as means of observing discipline towards a negative attitude as in the following excerpt:

Excerpt 18

Waɗannan sune (these are the) evidences din (for that) test, ajiyewa ake (they are for safe keeping). Baa sakaci dasu (Don’t neglect them).

In excerpt 18, intra-sentential code-switching was employed by the teacher in discussing with his students in respect of their negative attitude toward handling test scripts. The scripts were meant for them to check and ascertain the marks according to individual students and admonished its careful handling. This also creates an atmosphere that gave room for discussing personal issues between the teacher and his students within and outside the classroom.  It corresponds with Canagarajah’s (1995) statement that teachers’ use of mother tongue functions to express their displeasure over students’ undesirable behavior in classroom management.

3.7 Equivalence

Teachers in English class as observed employed code-switching to give the equivalent of some translated words, phrases, and clauses from English to Hausa and vice-versa.  Hausa proverbs, idioms, and some other figurative terms are of utmost consideration in this respect. Find some examples from the following excerpts:

Excerpt  20

Do you know the meaning of camouflage? Ungulu da kan Zabo.

(Do you know the meaning of camouflage?  The act of disguising).

Excerpt  21

What is ‘Chaos’ ya kamata  mu fara nuna muku ya ake pronouncing Kalmar  ma tukuna kafin mu faɗe ta.

(What is Chaos?  Firstly, You should learn how to pronounce the word before you said it).

Excerpt 22

This is the nature of illiteracy, usually, thit is what Mallam Bahaushe  is saying  ‘karamin sani  ququmi ne’.

(This is the nature of illiteracy, usually, this is what a Hausa-man refer as ‘Inadequate knowledge is constraint’).

Excerpt 23

This is what a lot of Kano people do. They are use to kuuri (boasting).

(This is what a lot of Kano people do. They use to boast)

Data from excerpts 20, 21, and 22 signifies intra-sentential code-switching and serves translation functions. The use of the Hausa proverbs as seen in these excerpts shows that the teacher employs code-switching to give the possible equivalent of translated phrases and clauses. He also uses it to translate a word in excerpt 23 for self-expression and explanation of some difficult terminology.  In normal circumstances, languages differ syntactically, morphologically, phonologically, or otherwise in terms of context in order to produce meaning. When speakers find it difficult to integrate the lexical item in a target language, they opted for code-switching.  Sert (2005) considers equivalence as a “defensive mechanism” from the side of the language teacher. In the course of instruction in English classes, teachers inserted lexical items from students’ native language in order to fill the lexical gaps.  This was in agreement with Cook (2001) who asserted that teachers use code-switching in conveying the meaning of words or sentences, explaining grammar, and for classroom organization. He further stressed that it could be used for translation purposes and drilling exercises during classroom activities. Duff and Poliof (1990) stated that teachers use code-switching for grammar instruction to offer a translation function when there is a lack of comprehension from the side of the students.

4.   Conclusion

Code-switching in English language classes at tertiary institutions served numerous functions in order to bridge lexical gaps in words, phrases, and sentences into the ongoing speech for instructional and social needs in the classroom context. Instructional functions include confirmation and evaluation, clarification, explanation, word equivalence in terms of translation of difficult and ambiguous words, idioms, and proverbs in order to facilitate comprehension. While the social functions of teachers’ code-switching include: emotion, humor for establishing social rapport with students and dealing with classroom discipline. Teachers used code-switching as lexical chunks for more clarification, comprehension, and detailed explanation of some abstract terms and concepts on the subject matter. All the code-switched utterances explored in respect of code-switching types in this paper were either tag-switching, inter-sentential, or intra-sentential in nature. It symbolizes linguistic features at the word level i.e noun, verb, pronoun, and interjection as in excerpts 12 and 14, and at the clausal level i.e dependent and independent clauses as in excerpts 10,11,12, 13, and 14.  And also at the phrasal level, i.e interjection and noun-phrase as in excerpts 14 and 20, and at the complete sentence level i.e idioms and proverbs as in excerpts 20 and 22. Normally, in language classes where English is used as a language of instruction for delivering the content of the lesson to the students, especially where both students and teachers shared the same local language in the learning environment, there are tendencies of switch coding. Teachers switch to students employing dominant language depending on the circumstance for managing the overall discipline in the classroom. Teachers were also observed to have chosen the local language when dealing with procedural problems during lessons and classroom management for easy control.

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